Abstract:
Rare Earth Nano Compounds: Preparation and Thermophysical
Characterization
Rare earth compounds are a big group of functional materials which have varied
applications in many fields ranging from Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) to biological
labeling/imaging. The newly developed materials and techniques are nontoxic,
ultrasensitive, and chemically and physically stable. The main focus of this research
work was to attempt to enhance the ionic conductivity of ceria based compounds.
Factors like decrease in grain size, doping of trivalent cations and multiple doping are
mainly focused to increase the conductivity. Also, Rare earth doped inorganic matrix is
synthesized and fluorescence is observed in stabilized fluorophore as bimodal probe for
bioimaging.
A comparative study for synthesis and characterization of nanocrystalline ceria
was done with a range of wet chemical methods including composite mediated
hydrothermal method (CMH), co-precipitation method and sol-gel method. The
calcination and sintering temperatures were 500 0 C and 750 0 C respectively for all the
samples. X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirmed the cubic fluorite structure. Raman
spectroscopy seconded the XRD results and characteristic feature of ceria was observed
ca. 465 cm -1 . The dc conductivities of the samples were determined in temperature
range 200-700 0 C. The highest value obtained was for the sample prepared with CMH
method having value 0.345 S-cm -1 at 700 0 C. So, CMH was selected as the synthesis
method for the later samples.
Further, the synthesis conditions of CMH method were optimized for
nanocrystalline samples.
The practical parameters were heat treatment time and
temperature. The heat treatment temperature during synthesis was held at 180 0 C and
220 0 C whereas treatment time was 45, 70 and 90 minutes. Better values of
conductivities were observed for sample with heat treatment time of 45 minutes and
heat treatment temperature of 180 0 C. The maximum electrical dc conductivity of the
sample was 0.3386 S-cm -1 at 700 0 C in this case.
To further enhance the conductivity, the doping of Gd was done in ceria and
composition made was Ce 1-x Gd x O δ ; x = 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25. The fluorite F 2 g band
around 465 cm -1 reconfirmed the Gd doped ceria. No peak of Gd 2 O 3 (480 cm -1 ) was
observed. DC conductivity was measured in temperature range 300-700 0 C and ac
ixconductivity was determined in frequency range 1 kHz to 3MHz at temperatures 300,
400, 500, 600 and 700 0 C. The larger values of conductivities were obtained for
Ce 0.75 Gd 0.25 O δ . The jump relaxation model can be used to explain the dc conductivity
behavior. By jump of ions to available sites, a hopping motion started thus contributing
to dc conductivity. The ̳step‘ ac conductivity in dispersion curves is confirmation of
the grain interior and grain boundary conductivities as ionic conduction is dependent on
the defect formation due to thermal energies which create vacancies to aid in hopping
motion of ions. The maximum conductivity, achieved for Ce 0.75 Gd 0.25 O δ, was 7.4x10 -3
S-cm -1 at 700 0 C.
The thermal conductivity values obtained using Advantageous
Transient Plane Source (ATPS) method was in low thermal conductivity region. The
thermal conduction is dependent on the scattering and mean free path, so the less mean
free path and more scattering gave rise to low conductivity values.
The effect of multiple doping on conductivity was also studied. La and Nd were
co-doped in Gd doped ceria for two samples which showed maximum conductivities in
the earlier studies i.e. Ce 0.9 Gd 0.1 O δ and Ce 0.75 Gd 0.25 O δ .
Samples with nominal
compositions Ce 1-2x Gd x La x O δ and Ce 1-2x Gd x Nd x O δ (x = 0.1, 0.25) were prepared. The
Ce-O fluorite breathing mode was observed in Raman spectroscopy to confirm the ceria
and doping in ceria. The strong ceria band appeared at ca. 465 cm -1 and weak oxygen
vacancy bands appeared ca. 570 and 600 cm -1 . The formation of oxygen vacancies and
defects was confirmed through Raman spectroscopy. The jump relaxation model is
applicable for dc conductivity and Jonscher power law described the ac conductivity
behavior.
The maximum dc conductivity achieved was 1.78 S-cm -1 for Ce 0.5 Gd 0.25
Nd 0.25 O δ. The relaxation reorientation peaks can be realized in dielectric constant and
dielectric loss plots which shifted toward higher frequencies with increase in
temperature.
Rare earth hydroxides (R(OH) 3) were synthesized by hydrothermal method and
stoichiometric change in composition and morphology was observed. Ce(OH) 3 ,
La(OH) 3 and Nd(OH) 3
samples were synthesized. XRD confirmed the hexagonal
structures of the prepared samples. The crystallite size corresponding to the most
intense peaks were 18, 33 and 41 nm for Nd-, La- and Ce- hydroxides. SEM revealed
very interesting and fascinating morphologies. Ce(OH) 3 has belts like structures,
Nd(OH) 3 has needles like structures and La(OH) 3 has wires like structures. The growth
of structures can be ascribed to chemical potential, maintained through precipitating
xagent, the pressure inside the vessel, the temperature provided for the hydrothermal
treatment and time for hydrothermal treatment. The shape evolution can be explained
by Gibbs-Curie-Wulff model which relate the shape evolution with the face energies.
When the equilibrium energy is obtained for respective faces the Ostwald ripening is
stopped. On heat treatment, the La(OH) 3 first converted into LaOOH at ca. 400 0 C and
finally into La 2 O 3 at ca. 600 0 C as observed in DSC plot. The increase of conductivity
with temperature is evident from the plots. Nd(OH) 3 achieved maximum conductivity
and Ce(OH) 3 acquired minimum among the three possibly due to smaller crystallite
sizes in the former case. The smaller grains increase the grain boundaries and charges
can pile up on boundaries which increase the conductivity. The corresponding dc
conductivity values of Ce(OH) 3 , La(OH) 3 and Nd(OH) 3 were 0.372, 6.648 and 20.369
S-cm -1 , respectively.
The fluorescence characteristics of rare earths with intense emissions and
stabilized structures were observed with Yb, Er, and Tm doping in F based inorganic
matrix NaMnF 3 . Yb has served as sensitizer and Tm and Er were utilized as activators.
The synthesis of NaMnF 3 co-doped with Yb;Er/Tm was successfully achieved through
solvothermal method. The ethylene glycol (EG) was used as stabilizing agent. Another
important feature of this synthesis method was surface functionalization of particles
with the synthesis process in a single step. Also, the choice of precursors of Na & F
and choice of stabilizing agent (EG) rendered the nanostructures to be rods like. The
PEI polymer was used for surface modification. An intense green emission is observed
for NaMnF3: Yb, Er, with increase in Yb concentration and for fixed Er at 2 mol%.
The observed emission was around 550 nm between levels 4 S 3/2 and 4 I 15/2. Yb20 Mn78
Er2 revealed red emission at 660 nm between levels 4 F 9/2 and 4 I 15/2 which became
intense with increase of Er concentration. With Tm as dopant, NEAR IR emission was
observed at 800 nm between levels 3 H 4 and 3 H 6 although blue emission was also
observed at 480 nm between energy levels 1 G 4 and 3 H 6 .
The highest value of conductivity achieved for Ce 0.75 Gd 0.25 O δ made this material
a potential candidate as an electrolyte for SOFCs. The low thermal conductivities of
R(OH) 3 can be utilized in thermal barrier coatings. The pure red emission from Yb20
Mn78 Er2 and presence of Mn made this material prospective applicant in bimodal
bioprobe.